Linguistic Typology

Linguistic Typology is the analysis, comparison, and classification of languages according to their common structural features and forms. This is also called cross-linguistic typology.   The branch of linguistics that studies the structural similarities between languages, regardless of their history, as part of an attempt to establish a satisfactory classification, or typology, of languages is known as typological linguistics (Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, 2008). Examples   Typology is the study of linguistic systems and recurring patterns of linguistic systems. Universals are typological generalizations based on these recurring patterns.Linguistic typology took off in its modern form with the ground-breaking research of Joseph Greenberg, such as, for example, his seminal paper on a cross-linguistic survey of word order leading to a series of implicational universals (Greenberg 1963). . . . Greenberg also attempted to establish methods for quantifying typological studies, in order that linguistic typology could meet scientific standards (cf. Greenberg 1960 [1954]). Furthermore, Greenberg re-introduced the importance of studying the ways languages change, but with the emphasis that language changes give us possible explanations for language universals (cf., for example, Greenberg 1978).Since Greenbergs pioneering efforts linguistic typology has grown exponentially and is, as any science, continuously being enhanced and redefined as to methods and approac hes. The last few decades have seen the compilation of large-scale databases with the help of ever more refined technology, which have led to new insights as well as given rise to new methodological issues.(Viveka Velupillai, An Introduction to Linguistic Typology. John Benjamins, 2013) Tasks of Linguistic Typology Among the tasks of general linguistic typology we include . . . a) the classification of languages, i.e., the construction of a system to order natural languages on the basis of their overall similarity; b) the discovery of the mechanism of construction of languages, i.e., the construction of a system of relationships, a network by means of which not only the obvious, categorial mechanisms of language can be read but also the latent ones.(G. Altmann and W. Lehfeldt, Allgemeinge Sprachtypologie: Prinzipien und Messverfahren, 1973; quoted by Paolo Ramat in Linguistic Typology. Walter de Gruyter, 1987) Fruitful Typological Classifications: Word Order In principle, we might pick on any structural feature and use it as the basis of classification. For example, we could divide languages into those in which the word for a canine animal is [dog] and those in which it isnt. (The first group here would contain exactly two known languages: English and the Australian language Mbabaram.) But such a classification would be pointless since it wouldnt lead anywhere.The only typological classifications which are of interest are those which are fruitful. By this, we mean that the languages in each category should turn out to have other features in common, features which are not used to set up the classification in the first place.[The most celebrated and fruitful of all typological classifications has proved to be one in terms of basic word order. Proposed by Joseph Greenberg in 1963 and more recently developed by John Hawkins and others, word-order typology has revealed a number of striking and previously unsuspected correlations. For example, a language with SOV [Subject, Object, Verb] order is highly likely to have modifiers that precede their head nouns, auxiliaries that follow their main verbs, postpositions instead of prepositions, and a rich case system for nouns. A VSO [Verb, Subject, Object] language, in contrast, usually has modifiers that follow their nouns, auxiliaries that precede their verbs, prepositions, and no cases.(R.L. Trask, Language, and Linguistics: The Key Concepts, 2nd ed., edited by Peter Stockwell. Routledge, 2007) Typology and Universals [T]ypology and universals research are intimately related: if we have a set of significant parameters whose values none the less show a high degree of correlation, then the network of relations among these parameter values can equally be expressed in the form of a network of implicational universals (absolute or tendencies).Clearly, the more widespread the net of logically independent parameters that can be linked in this way, the more significant is the typological base being used.(Bernard Comrie, Language Universals, and Linguistic Typology: Syntax and Morphology, 2nd ed. The University of Chicago Press, 1989) Typology and Dialectology There is evidence from linguistic varieties around the world, including Greek dialects, to suggest that the distribution of structural characteristics over the worlds languages may not be entirely random from a sociolinguistic point of view. For example, we have seen indications that long-term contact involving child bi-lingualism may lead to increased complexity, including redundancy. Conversely, contact involving adult second language acquisition may lead to increased simplification. Furthermore, communities with dense, tightly-knit social networks may be more likely to demonstrate fast-speech phenomena and the consequences of this, and more likely to experience unusual sound changes. I would like to suggest, moreover, that insights of this type can complement research in linguistic typology by giving an explanatory edge to the findings of this discipline. And I would also suggest that these insights should give some sense of urgency to typological research: if it is true that cert ain types of linguistic structure are to be found more frequently, or possibly only, in dialects spoken in smaller and more isolated communities, then we had better research these types of communities as rapidly as we can while they still exist. Source Peter Trudgill, The Impact of Language Contact and Social Structure. Dialectology Meets Typology: Dialect Grammar From a Cross-linguistic Perspective, ed. by Bernd Kortmann. Walter de Gruyter, 2004

Essay Perception of God and Evil by Augustine of Hippo

Augustine of Hippo (354-430) is among the most influential thinkers in Christianity. He contributed a great number of ideas and notions to Christian theology that would have lasting effect on belief systems in Christian churches. One of his most notable contributions is the notion of â€Å"original sin† and his concept of â€Å"evil.† These notions evolved over the years. Augustine traces their evolution in his Confessions, a thirteen-volume autobiography he wrote when he was in his forties. An essential part of Confessions is Augustine’s conversion to Christianity and his evolving understanding of good and evil. In book seven of Confessions, Augustine describes his perception of God before his conversion to Christianity. He explains that he†¦show more content†¦Significantly, Manichaeism perceives of God and his evil antagonist, Satan, as being restricted to the world. This notion appealed to the young Augustine, as he struggled to comprehend how anything like evil could exist. He seek out Neoplatonic books only to conclude that it shares similar Manichean teaching where evil represents physical matters like the body. However, Neoplatonism helped him realize a new understanding of God existing in an intelligible realm. After his conversion to Christianity, Augustine came to think of God not just as a spiritual being but also sovereign over all beings, which is a clear rejection of the Manichaeistic worldview. The lyrics to Carman’s The Champion sum up Augustine’s notion of God quite nicely, when they state, â€Å"Of the war between the lord of sin and death, And the Omnipotent Creator of man’s first breath, Who will decide who will forever be the Champion† (â€Å"The Champion† second stanza). God is according to Augustine the single sovereign, who rules over everything, even the evil forces in the universe. This sovereignty is grounded in Augustine’s understanding that God created everything. This assumption ultimately solves the question why evil exists. It exists because God created it, just like he created everything else. Augustine suggests that everything God creates in inherently good. However, creatures can become â€Å"evil† because they are prone to corruption (Mann 44). Furthermore, rational beings haveShow MoreRelatedSt. Augustine s Life And Life734 Words   |  3 PagesAugustine was born November 13, A.D. 354, in Tagaste; and died seventy-six years later in Hippo Regius. Augustine was raise up in a family with both parents his father (Patricius) who was a nonbeliever until later in life and Augustine mother (Monica) a child of God. His mother taught Augustine at a young age about our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. Augustine like any other young t eenager did not like school but at the same time had a desire to be liked by his teacher’s, but had some bad behavioralRead MoreSocrates And St. Augustines Views On Death1305 Words   |  6 Pageswith their theories. 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Plato on the other hand orbited the idea of the theory of forms which, later St. Augustine incorporatedRead MoreSummary : A Pursuit Of Wisdom Confessions 2348 Words   |  10 PagesElana Selitsky 3/27/16 A Pursuit of Wisdom in Confessions In the first nine books of his Confessions, Augustine of Hippo narrates the journey of his restless heart, seeking to find rest in God. He embarks on a journey for the wisdom that constitutes the happy life, navigated by a thirst for knowledge and truth. Augustine’s journey is sparked by his restless heart searching for the right answers to his questions about the universe. He feels the need to fully understand things before he can believeRead MoreWitchcraft And Superstition In Medieval Europe1654 Words   |  7 Pagesthe practice or belief of witchcraft was an unpunishable sin against God. There were two focal traditions surrounding magic, the first acknowledged magic as a reality, where there were many laws instituting penalties for those who used magic to harm others. The second is commonly known as the Christian tradition, stemming from Christian theologian St. Christian Augustine. The theological idea was that individuals excluding God do not possess the ability to mani pulate reality. Meanwhile, many becameRead MoreThe Innocence Of Simple Observation1750 Words   |  7 Pageswaves – if no observation takes place a wave pattern is revealed; if observation takes place these same objects exhibit the behavior of point particles. When fully matured observation of the movement of life increases our level of awareness and perception which allows for the natural transcending of the senses and the intellectual mind to bring us to the direct experience of the Self which is always in the transcendent. In the transcendent we realize that the observer has become the observed, theRead MoreAugustine And The Two Cities3085 Words   |  13 Pages Augustine and the Two Cities Different aspects of Augustine’s conception of the earthly city Augustine had different perceptions about the earthly city. He did this in line with the teaching of the Bible. His confession can be referred to as an autobiography although it has a framework that is more of theological, religious, philosophical and moral approach. Augustine looks at the different approaches to the exploration of God s nature and other factors such as sin as they occur in the human andRead MoreThe Conversion Of Christianity : Not An Easy One As Explained By Rodoifio Lanciani2337 Words   |  10 Pagesmany others who were forsaken by the church. Perceptual changes, law changes, and sexuality changes occurred that affected their work by limiting customers and forcing them to go underground. Perception When discussing how the change in religions affected the prostitutes it is important to discuss perception and the general public’s shift in views through time. Was there that much of a change that occurred? The discussion starts with whether differing views during the time before the installation

Competition Between International Businessâ€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Competition Between International Business? Answer: Introduction With the advancement in technology and globalisation of the economy, the international business of companies has grown significantly. The modern technology allows companies to easily enhance their business on a global stage. The global competition between international companies is at its peak; therefore, a proper management requirement is needed for the international business. The companies conducting business internationally have to employ international managers, who analyse different aspects of international business. The international manager is an extensive label for a managerial personal that is in charge of global operations. The international manager is responsible for the companys foreign business and its various aspects. This report will discuss regarding the environment of an international manager from the perspective of Apple Incorporation. Further, this report will discuss the duties and responsibilities of international manager of Apple Incorporation. International Manager An international manager title is given to the managerial personnel that are responsible for managing the international operation and various aspects of international business. International manager of an organisation is in charge of several duties, such as planning, organising, operating, staffing, directing and controlling, of international operations. The role of the international manager is necessary for efficient international transactions (Terpstra, Foley and Sarathy 2012). Apple Inc. Apple Incorporation is an international American technology organisation, founded in 1976. The company operates in computer hardware, software, electronics and digital distribution industry. Apple is the second largest mobile producer company worldwide, and they generated revenue of US$215.639 billion in 2016 financial year. Apple is worlds most valuable corporation according to Forbes, by being first ever American company to worth over $700 billion. The company has established 495 stores in 17 countries, and the global sale of iPhone has crossed one billion. The key managerial personnel in Apple of international operations includes Angela Ahrendts, Philip W. Schiller, Tor Myhren, Luca Maestri, Cathy Kearney and Gene Daniel Levoff (Alidori 2015). The international operation of Apple is significantly large with their manufacturing and selling process. The company manufactures its product in factories of China. Apple has to apply with different government regulations implemented by the Chinese government and maintain their operations carefully, to avoid any security or health hazard to their workers. Apples international manager is in charge of operating various international transactions. Functions of International Manager According to Griffin and Pustay (2012), with the enhancement of global competition, the role of the international manager has raised significantly in an organisation. The manager has to keep up its policies with rapidly changing technologies, high-speed communication and changes in product requirements. The organisational structure of an organisation is required to be flexible enough to change with the marketing conditions. Usually, international manager performs the similar tasks as a domestic manager, but these takes are affected due to international marketing conditions. Planning The first stage for every manager is to prepare proper plan and strategies for the business. the research of Deresky (2017) provided that, the manager takes international decisions such as, whether to export or import, to enter franchise contract or joint ventures, or selecting of the country for its operations. The international manager develops, forecasts, set goals and plan for the worldwide actions. The manager monitors the international activities of different industries to construct its plans and strategies. The major factors that are considered by an international manager while formulating its plans include legal factors, political factors, currency change, competition, government pressure, patent trademarks, and customers behaviours. The international manager of Apple has to consider above-mentioned factors as well while formulating their international plans. Apple is known for high quality of its products and services; the international manager has to plan its strategies so the company maintains the same reputation in international markets as well. The manager considers different aspects in the industry to formulate their plans, such as the political pressure of governments, regulations of the smartphone industry, competition from other smartphone manufacturers and legislative factors. For example, in China and India, Apple is not allowed to sell refurbished iPhones due to their political environment (Comfort and Frankline 2014). Organising It is important for international companies that their strategies comply with the cultures of different countries. It is a responsibility of the international manager to organise their operations, to adopt the culture and environmental factors of different countries. There must be a proper communication channel between all the organisations. The organisations cannot apply same principles in different countries. An international firm has different policies and regulations for its different departments. The international manager is responsible for applying these changes in the organisation (Cantwell, Dunning and Lundan 2010). There are three important stages consider by the international manager. First, the pre-international stage, in which companies decided to expand its operations globally and the manager has to provide proper planning for export necessitates. In the second stage, various regulations, laws, restrictions, and competition, are evaluated by the international manager. In the third stage, the companys international operations get established and the management of international branch become centralised (Lee, Son and Lee 2011). In case of Apple, the companys international manager have to analyse regulations, retraction, and competition before organising their operations worldwide. While organising their factories in China, the manager analyses different labour and factory regulation which affect the organisation operations. Apples international manager maintains an environmentally friendly approach throughout their Chinese factories by using solar power and other environmental resources to run their industrial operations (Nagle, Hogan and Zale 2016). Directing Controlling The difference in culture makes it hard for international managers to direct and control different managerial personals. The managers face various problems such as workers attitude towards works, culture problems, and language barriers. The international manager has to maintain a cross-culture management in the organisation by providing training to managers. Apple provides training to their Chinese managers, to maintain a smooth communication chain. This allows the company to efficiently communicate with managers in Chinese factories and implement their policies (Ghazawneh and Henfridsson 2013). Staffing According to CAppellen and Jenssens (2010), talented employees are necessary for the success of an organisation and it is the duty of the international manager to hire talented staff throughout their international organisations. The international manager must be familiar with different labour laws of countries. The appointment and number of managerial staff are considered by the manager, along with the labours in factories. Apple has successfully implemented the Chinese labour laws in their factories in China. The factories are eco-friendly, and they provide a better working environment to their worker. International Environment Factors According to Wild, Wild and Han (2014), the international manager of an organisation is required to monitor different aspects of the international environment to properly manage different branches of the organisation. By expanding business globally, the company receives many benefits such as an increase in sales, global branding and sustainable future growth. But there are different aspects that company has to consider before expanding their business globally. These aspects could affect the earning and reputation of the organisation. The international manager of organisations is required to analyse these market factors and formulate proper strategies to avoid any adverse impact. Political Environment According to the research of Holburn and Zelner (2010), the political pressure of different countries could affect the companys business adversely. The international manager is requiring monitoring the political activities which can impact the business of the organisation. For example, a political leadership or philosophies could change overnight and can adversely affect the companys business. Like in India, when Apple decided to sell refurbished iPhone, the political parties strongly rejected the proposal. This affected the business of Apple since their most iPhone in India are sold second hand by customers. The international manager is required to form policies according to political regulations. Legal Environment According to Kubasek, Brennan and Browne (2016), the legal environment consists of different laws and regulation implemented in different countries. The international manager must be familiar with these regulations before expanding their business globally. Not complying with regulations or breaking regulation could affect the reputation of the company. The legal factors include tax regulations, inflation rates, and changes in exchange rates. These factors affect the earning and economy of an organisation. Before implementing any strategies, Apples managers thoroughly analyses different legal regulations of countries which allow them to form policies according to the market conditions. Technological Environment According to Dunning (2013), the technology in smartphones market changes rapidly, but there are changes between the technology of different countries. The company products must be compatible with the countrys technology. For example, many of Apple services do not work in different countries such as payment methods, search services, and few applications. While selling their products in China, the companys managers have to change their NFC enabled payment method Apple Pay, because it was not compatible in the Chinese market. Sociocultural Environment The sociocultural environment of countries is different from one another, which makes it hard for companies to operate. The working environment of employees is also separate in different countries. The international manager is responsible to study different social culture environment and adopt strategies according to them. The company changes its policies according to the culture requirement of different countries. Apples managers maintain a flexible approach which allows them to change their international policies according to the requirements of different countries. The managers applied a harmonious strategy while entering in Chinese market due to their harmonious environment (Dikova, Sahib and Van 2010) Conclusion For the above report, it can be concluded that the duties of international manager play an important role in organisational international expansion. It is the duty of the international manager to establish proper international policies by monitoring its different aspects. The manager monitors political, legal, technical, social and cultural environment policies, which could affect the performance of an organisation. Apples management team has done a successful job in implementing proper international policies in their organisation. The management team monitors a different aspect of countries environment and apply these changes in their organisational policies. These activities provide details regarding the environment of an international manager. References Alidori, R., 2015.The 20 people who run Apple - and why you should care. Macworld UK. Retrieved from https://www.macworld.co.uk/feature/apple/20-apple-execs-you-need-know-3525573/ Cantwell, J., Dunning, J.H. and Lundan, S.M., 2010. An evolutionary approach to understanding international business activity: The co-evolution of MNEs and the institutional environment.Journal of International Business Studies,41(4), pp.567-586. Cappellen, T. and Janssens, M., 2010. Characteristics of international work: Narratives of the global manager.Thunderbird International Business Review,52(4), pp.337-348. Comfort, J. and Franklin, P., 2014.The mindful international manager: How to work effectively across cultures. Kogan Page Publishers. Deresky, H., 2017.International management: Managing across borders and cultures. Pearson Education India. Dikova, D., Sahib, P.R. and Van Witteloostuijn, A., 2010. Cross-border acquisition abandonment and completion: The effect of institutional differences and organizational learning in the international business service industry, 19812001.Journal of International Business Studies,41(2), pp.223-245. Dunning, J.H., 2013.Multinationals, Technology Competitiveness (RLE International Business)(Vol. 13). Routledge. Ghazawneh, A. and Henfridsson, O., 2013. Balancing platform control and external contribution in third party development: the boundary resources model.Information Systems Journal,23(2), pp.173-192. Griffin, R.W. and Pustay, M.W., 2012.International business. Pearson Higher Ed. Holburn, G.L. and Zelner, B.A., 2010. Political capabilities, policy risk, and international investment strategy: evidence from the global electric power generation industry.Strategic Management Journal,31(12), pp.1290-1315. Kubasek, N.K., Brennan, B.A. and Browne, M.N., 2016.The legal environment of business: A critical thinking approach. Pearson. Lee, Y.K., Son, M.H. and Lee, D.J., 2011. Do emotions play a mediating role in the relationship between owner leadership styles and manager customer orientation, and performance in service environment?.International Journal of Hospitality Management,30(4), pp.942-952. Nagle, T.T., Hogan, J. and Zale, J., 2016.The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing: New International Edition. Routledge. Terpstra, V., Foley, J. and Sarathy, R., 2012.International marketing. Naper Press. Wild, J.J., Wild, K.L. and Han, J.C., 2014.International business. Pearson Education Limited.

Loss Causation Model free essay sample

Loss Causation Model BY ds11969 Loss Causation Model History, Theory Application Before a loss occurs (Injury, illness, damage, loss in process), there are series of events that take place with a root cause that begins this series of events. The root cause is called a Lack of Control (Inadequate standards, lack of compliance for preparedness, knowledge and skill training, etc). This leads to a basic cause (or personal factor) such as lack of knowledge, stress, inadequate capabilities. This in turn leads to an immediate cause (substandard conditions and actions) such as perating without authority, working under the influence of controlled substances, inadequate barriers. This then leads to an Incident a fall, a strike, stress, or being in contact with an unfriendly environment. The incidence leads to the loss. The concept of the Loss Causation Model hence is that when a loss occurs, we need to go back that chain, realize that the root cause is not the incident or the immediate cause, and solve the problem from the root cause in order to prevent the loss from reoccurring. We will write a custom essay sample on Loss Causation Model or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page There are numerous accident and loss causation models in existence. The two that will be discussing in this report will be H. W. Heinrichs Domino Theory and the ILCI Loss Causation Model. Loss causation models are used as models for safety and accident prevention theory. Loss causation models provide a direction of focus for the individual interested in reducing injuries in an organization. Heinrichs principles date back to 1932 and encourage focusing on near misses instead of injury-related incidents to prevent significant losses from occurring. The International Loss Control Institute developed their own model in 1985, the ILCI Loss Causation model, to provide users a tool to control the vast majority of accidents and loss control roblems. The ILCI model encourages focusing on development of standards, the measurement and evaluation of standards to ensure they are being followed through by members of the organization, and the continuous update of standards to provide a means to prevent injuries in an organization. A more detailed account of each of these loss causation models follows starting with Heinrichs theory. Heinrichs Domino Theory of Loss Causation In his 1932 book Industrial Accident Prevention, H. W. Heinrich wrote that there are five factors in the accident sequence: * The first factor is the social environment nd ancestry. Traits such as recklessness, stubbornness, avariciousness, and other undesirable character traits may be passed along through inheritance. * The second factor is the fault of the person. This factor states that inherited or acquired traits of the person; such as violent temper, lack of consideration, ignorance of safe practice, etc. are responsible for the person committing unsafe acts or allowing the existence of mechanical or physical hazards. * The third factor is the unsafe act and/or mechanical or physical hazard. Unsafe acts include standing under uspended loads, failure to adhere to lock-out/tag-out policy, horseplay, and removal of safeguards. Mechanical or physical hazards include such items as unguarded machinery, unguarded pinch points, and insufficient light. * The fourth factor is flying objects, being caught in machinery, or coming into contact with high energy sources. The fifth and last factor is the injury. Injuries include fractures, lacerations, etc. , that result directly from accidents (Heinrich, 1932). Heinrich then arranges these five factors in a domino fashion such that the fall of the first domino results in the fall of the entire row. The domino arrangement illustrates Heinrichs notion that each factor leads to the next with the end result being the injury. It also illustrates that if one of the factors (dominos) is removed, the sequence is unable to progress and the injury will not occur. While it may be difficult or impossible to change a persons attitude (the first and second domino), proper supervision can guide the persons behavior so that they do not perform a substandard act or allow a substandard condition to exist (the third domino) which leads to an accident (the fourth domino) that leads to an injury (the fifth and final domino). Heinrich also developed a pyramid shaped model to explain the relationship of near-miss accidents to minor injuries and major injuries. Heinrichs pyramid states that for every 300 near-miss incidents, there will be 29 minor injuries, and 1 major injury. This pyramid summarizes Heinrichs belief that-near miss incidents must be prevented in order to eliminate the possibility of reaching each successive level of the pyramid. Figure 1 depicts Heinrichs pyramid. While the terminology and thinking found in Heinrichs Domino Theory of Accident Prevention are dated, the process remains worth review. Properly training employees and managers insures that the management system is working in concert with employees to reduce the occurrence of near misses that, in turn, reduces the opportunity for more severe injuries to occur. A major flaw with Heinrichs model is that it relies on a single cause that leads to an incident. Rarely is an incident the product of a single cause; more likely, an incident is the result of several factors that occurred simultaneously to produce the incident or loss. A more up to date and complete model of loss causation is the ILCI Loss Causation Model that dates to 1985. Where Heinrich focused on reducing the ncidence of near misses, the ILCI model focuses on development of performance standards and enforcement of standards to ensure that employees are performing their work in a safe manner. With emphasis on performance standards, the ILCI model takes a proactive approach to loss prevention and suggests that losses are due to a breakdown in these standards. A closer look at the ILCI model follows. ILCI Loss Causation Theory * Inadequate Management control * Basic causes: personal vs. Job factors * Immediate causes: substandard acts/ conditions * Near hit/accident: contact with energy, substance, and/or people * Loss: people, roduct, service, equipment, facility, and/or environment The International Loss Control Institute has developed the ILCI Loss Causation Model. Like Heinrichs Domino Theory, the ILCI model is based on a sequence of events that leads up to an eventual loss. The events in sequential order are Lack of control, Basic causes, Immediate Causes, Incident/Contact, and Loss. Each event has a role in continuing the loss process to its conclusion, the Loss. To facilitate a better understanding of the ILCI model, the events will be reviewed in reverse, starting from Control (inadequate program or inadequate compliance to standards). To begin, Loss is the result of an accident. Loss can be direct or indirect, both of which must be considered to fully appreciate the impact to a company. Direct loss includes some or all of the following; harm to people, damage to property, or a reduction/halt in productivity. Indirect costs may include, but are not limited to, increased training costs to replace injured employees, legal expenses, investigation time, and loss of business due to unfavorable press. The ILCI Loss Causation Model estimates that for every dollar of direct loss, the indirect costs may be six to fifty-three times as much. Both direct and indirect costs of injury and illness are deducted directly out of profit; conversely, when dollars are saved from accidents the organization realizes increased profits . Prior to the Loss, the Incident occurs that may or may not result in injury to a person or damage to property. A person or object is able to absorb a given amount of energy without harm, however, when the amount of energy exceeds the amount that may be safely absorbed, injury or damage results. This not only applies to an objects kinetic energy that contacts the person or property, but also electrical nergy, acoustic energy, thermal energy, radiant energy, and chemical energy. The American Standard Accident Classification code lists some of the more common types of energy transfers which include: Struck against (running or bumping into) Struck by (hit by moving object) Fall to lower level (either the body falls or the object falls and hits the body) Fall on same level (slip and fall, tip over) Caught in (pinch and nip points) Caught on (snagged, hung) Caught between (crushed or amputated) Contact with (electricity, heat cold, radiation, caustics, toxics, noise) Overstress/ verexertion/overload Continuing up the chain of the ILCI model, Immediate Causes precede the Incident. Immediate Causes are subdivided further into substandard practices and substandard conditions. While Heinrich used the term unsafe act or conditions to describe the direct cause of injuries, use of the term unsafe has fallen out of favor with current trends in accident prevention. The term unsafe calls the organizations ability to identify obvious problems into question, a potential problem in todays litigious society. The term substandard acknowledges that organizations have tandards of performance that are to be followed by all employees and is the accepted term used today. When substandard conditions and/or practices are allowed to occur in a facility, there is always the potential for an energy transfer that is beyond the persons/ob]ects ability to absorb without damage. To clarify substandard practices and substandard conditions, the following examples are provided: Examples of substandard practices would include: Operating equipment without authority Improper loading Horseplay Under influence of alcohol and/or other drugs Examples of substandard conditions would include: Ђ Defective tools, equipment or materials Poor housekeeping; disorderly workplace Inadequate ventilation Prior to the Immediate Cause of the loss are the Basic Causes. Basic Causes must be identified and addressed to allow a more effective control of losses. The Basic Causes help to explain why people perform substandard acts or allow substandard conditions to exist. The ILCI model divides the Basic Causes into two categories, personal factors and Job factors. Personal factors include lack of knowledge, skill, or inability to handle pressures of the Job while Job factors include such items as nadequate training, inappropriate equipment and tools, worn equipment and tools, or inadequate equipment and tools. Lack of Control is the initial step that leads to Basic Causes and allows the sequence to proceed to the eventual loss. According to the ILCI model, there are three common reasons for lack of control; inadequate safety/loss program, inadequate safety/loss program standards, and inadequate compliance with standards. First, an inadequate program occurs when there are too few program activities to address the needs of an organization. Necessary programs will vary depending on the size of the organization, work performed at the rganization, and the methods to perform the work. Common elements of an effective program according to the ILCI model include management and employee training, personal protective equipment, engineering controls, planned inspections, task analysis, emergency preparedness, and incident investigations. Second, inadequate program standards occur when organizations standards are not specific enough, not clear enough, or are not high enough. Program standards need to let people know what is expected of them as well as provide them with a tool to measure their performance against the standard. Third, inadequate compliance is a factor that leads to Lack of Control. Most managers agree that inadequate compliance is probably the single greatest reason for loss. Poor compliance with effective program standards is due to ineffective communication of standards to employees or a failure to enforce standards . ln summary, the ILCI Loss Causation Model indicates that losses begin with a lack of control. With a lack of control, basic causes such as lack of training or inadequate tools and equipment are allowed to occur/exist. These basic causes lead to the immediate causes, which are the existence of a substandard ondition or the performance of a substandard practice. Immediate causes lead to the incident itself, and conclude with the loss. The loss may be to people, property, product, the environment, or the organizations ability to provide its services. It is important to note that it is not the intent of the ILCI model to place blame on individuals for committing substandard acts or for allowing substandard conditions to exist, but rather to encourage managers to evaluate the management system that influences human behavior. Punishment should never be inflicted as the result of an accident investigation . By punishing the employee; attention is shifted away from the management system that allowed the loss to occur in the first place. The ILCI model starts with a lack of control. Control is within the four essential functions of management, which are to plan, lead, control, and organize. Taking this into consideration, it may be summarized that a loss is indicative of a failure on questions, the lack of control in the management system may be identified and addressed to prevent the sequence of events from occurring that leads to the eventual loss. As detailed in the ILCI model and H. W.

An Introduction to Queuing Theory

An Introduction to Queuing Theory Queuing theory is the mathematical study of queuing, or waiting in lines. Queues contain customers (or â€Å"items†) such as people, objects, or information. Queues  form when there are limited resources for providing a service. For example, if there are 5 cash registers in a grocery store, queues will form if more than 5 customers wish to pay for their items at the same time. A basic queuing system consists of an arrival process (how customers arrive at the queue, how many customers are present in total), the queue itself, the service process for attending to those customers, and departures from the system. Mathematical queuing models are often used in software and business to determine the best way of using limited resources. Queueing models can answer questions such as: What is the probability that a customer will wait 10 minutes in line? What is the average waiting time per customer?   The following situations are examples of how queueing theory can be applied: Waiting in line at a bank or a storeWaiting for a customer service representative to answer a call after the call has been placed on holdWaiting for a train to comeWaiting for a computer to perform a task or respondWaiting for an automated car wash to clean a line of cars Characterizing a Queuing System Queuing models  analyze how customers (including people, objects, and information) receive a service. A queuing system contains: Arrival process. The arrival process is simply how customers arrive. They may come into a queue alone or in groups, and they may arrive at certain intervals or randomly.Behavior. How  do customers behave when they are in line? Some might be willing to wait for their place in the queue; others may become impatient and leave. Yet others might decide to rejoin the queue later, such as when they are put on hold with customer service and decide to call back in hopes of receiving faster service.  How customers are serviced. This includes the length of time a customer is serviced, the number of servers available to help the customers, whether customers are served one by one or in batches, and the order in which customers are serviced, also called service discipline.Service discipline refers to the rule by which the next customer is selected. Although many retail scenarios  employ the â€Å"first come, first served† rule, other situations may call for other types of service. For example, customers may be served in order of priority, or based on the number of items they need serviced (such as in an express lane in a grocery store). Sometimes, the  last customer to arrive will be served first (such s in the case in a stack of dirty dishes, where the one on top will be the first to be washed). Waiting room. The number of customers allowed to wait in the queue may be limited based on the space available. Mathematics of Queuing Theory Kendall’s notation is a shorthand notation that specifies the parameters of a basic queuing model. Kendall’s notation is written in the form A/S/c/B/N/D, where each of the letters stand for different parameters. The A term describes when customers arrive at the queue – in particular, the time between arrivals, or interarrival times. Mathematically, this parameter specifies the probability distribution that the interarrival times follow. One common probability distribution used for the A term is the Poisson distribution.The S term describes how long it takes for a customer to be serviced after it leaves the queue. Mathematically, this parameter specifies the probability distribution that these service times follow. The Poisson distribution is also commonly used for the S term.The c term specifies the number of servers in the queuing system. The model assumes that all servers in the system are identical, so they can all be described by the S term above.The B term specifies the total number of items that can be in the system, and includes items that are still in the queue and those that are being serviced. Though many systems in the real world have a limited capacity, the model is easier to analyze if this capacity is considered infinite. Consequently, if the capacity of a system is large enough, the system is commonly assumed to be infinite. The N term specifies the total number of potential customers – i.e., the number of customers that could ever enter the queueing system – which may be considered finite or infinite.The D term specifies the service discipline of the queuing system, such as first-come-first-served or last-in-first-out. Little’s law, which was first proven by mathematician John Little, states that the average number of items in a queue can be calculated by multiplying the average rate at which the items arrive in the system by the average amount of time they spend in it. In mathematical notation, the Littles law is: L ÃŽ »WL is the average number of items, ÃŽ » is the average arrival rate of the items in the queuing system, and W is the average amount of time the items spend in the queuing system.Little’s law assumes that the system is in a â€Å"steady state† – the mathematical variables characterizing the system do not change over time. Although Little’s law only needs three inputs, it is quite general and can be applied to many queuing systems, regardless of the types of items in the queue or the way items are processed in the queue. Little’s law can be useful in analyzing how a queue has performed over some time, or to quickly gauge how a queue is currently performing. For example: a shoebox company wants to figure out the average number of shoeboxes that are stored in a warehouse. The company knows that the average arrival rate of the boxes into the warehouse is 1,000 shoeboxes/year, and that the average time they spend in the warehouse is about 3 months, or  ¼ of a year. Thus, the average number of shoeboxes in the warehouse is given by (1000 shoeboxes/year) x ( ¼ year), or 250 shoeboxes. Key Takeaways Queuing theory is the mathematical study of queuing, or waiting in lines.Queues contain â€Å"customers† such as people, objects, or information. Queues form when there are limited resources for providing a service.Queuing theory can be applied to situations ranging from  waiting in line at the grocery store to waiting for a computer to perform a task. It is often used in software and business applications to determine the best way of using limited resources.Kendall’s notation can be used to specify the parameters of a queuing system.Little’s law is a simple but general expression that can provide a quick estimate of the average number of items in a queue. Sources Beasley, J. E. â€Å"Queuing theory.†Boxma, O. J. â€Å"Stochastic performance modelling.† 2008.Lilja, D. Measuring Computer Performance: A Practitioner’s Guide, 2005.Little, J., and Graves, S. â€Å"Chapter 5: Little’s law.† In Building Intuition: Insights from Basic Operations Management Models and Principles. Springer ScienceBusiness Media, 2008.Mulholland, B. â€Å"Little’s law: How to analyze your processes (with stealth bombers).† Process.st, 2017.

Occupational Health and Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Occupational Health and Safety - Essay Example There is no standard as to what elements or factors should be present for workplace or working conditions to be considered safe. The Contributory Negligence Doctrine puts the entire blame on the employee and frees the employer of any responsibility on the mishap that occurred. The relationship between the employers and the workers is one where their goals and the means of attaining them are segregated or are on totally opposite fields. There is no interdependence and cooperation in reaching a common goal. Employers are mainly concerned with production and are not involved in matters concerning the conditions and welfare of their workers or employees. This doctrine held on to the notion that employees are totally and solely responsible for their actions and management is a separate entity which is only accountable to itself and to the costs and profits of the business. Being a separate entity, employers are in no way part of the workers personal and individual concerns, even wile in the workplace or within the premises of the company structure, other than the giving of wage for service rendered. The basis of the relationship is only grounded on the exchange of services for wages. This doctrine's main assumption is that if employees, prior to their acceptance of the job or prior to the commencement of their duties, are aware of the hazards involved in the job or of the presence of hazards in the workplace then they have accepted these hazards as part of the employment conditions. They cannot therefore sue their employees in the event that an accident happens, because their acceptance of the job meant that they have accepted the hazards that go with it. The court based this doctrine on the theory that if an employee sees that there are hazards involved in the job before even accepting the work, he would demand for a higher wage because of the possibility of getting injured. The employer on the other hand, as a reaction to this demand, would either do something to remove the risk or would pay the additional salary. This doctrine reflects again a boxed relationship between the employee and employer where the concern lies in the exchange of service for money. The concern does not extend to the physical or emotional welfare of the employee while working for the company. There is no initiative on the part of the employer in providing safe conditions for the workers. The reaction of eliminating the risk factors is just a response to the issue of additional wage demanded by the worker. The basis of this reaction again is the financial standing of the company or the cost that they would have to incur. It is in no way to afford additional benefits to workers like safe working conditions. The burden of protecting oneself from work hazards is again on the shoulders of the workers. By demanding for additional compensation in exchange for a future possibility of an accident occurring while at work, the worker will free the employer of any liability. C. Fellow-Servant Doctrine The basic idea of this doctrine is that an employee cannot seek compensation from the employer for damages if the accident was caused, either entirely or in part, by a co-worker. This doctrine is regarded as an extension of the

Roisin as a Secular Western Woman in the Film by Ken Loach Research Paper

Roisin as a Secular Western Woman in the Film by Ken Loach - Research Paper Example As the film begins, Casim is shown working as a disc jockey in a club, playing Arabic music. In this scene, the crowd primarily consisting of young British-Pakistanis is depicted dancing wildly to the music. This crowd contravenes the common precept of Islam as a largely conservative religion. It is also fairly unconventional for a Muslim to work as a deejay as Casim does. This scene clearly illustrates the extensive influence that secular western values have had on Islam, and especially on second-generation Muslims. It is evident that these young adults are not devout adherents of Islam and its traditions, like their parents. This lack of complete devotion could be attributed to their intermingling with other cultures and desire to be accepted in a rather diverse society (Ernst 5). Another scene focusing on religion in Ae Fond Kiss is that of Tahara delivering a speech in front of students during what appears to be a class debate (02:48-04:21). The debate evidently revolves around t he West’s unified crusade against global terrorism, as shown on the whiteboard. Tahara presents a strong argument stating that she defies the universal definition of terrorism as provided by the West since it fails to account for the many people subjected to terror in daily circumstances. Most importantly, Tahara says that she rejects the manner in which the West simplifies Muslims. The speech draws one’s attention to the stereotypes held by Westerners for Muslims. It also shows how absurd it is to generalize Muslims and link all of them to terrorism, yet they are as diverse as other religions.